International Migration and Social Transformation in the Neoliberal Era: A Case Study of Mixtecos as Indigenous People in Mexico and Irregular Migrants in the US

Abstract

Building on a critique of dominant readings of the migration-development nexus, this thesis investigates the relationship between migration and social transformation in the context of increasingly universal relationships of power and inequality shaping the neoliberal era. Empirically, it focuses on the case study of Mixteco participants in Piñas (Oaxaca, Mexico) and Santa Maria (California, US) and draws from their histories, experiences and agency as Indigenous people in Mexico and ‘irregular’ migrants in the US. In doing so, this thesis demonstrates that important insights into contemporary migration flows can be gained by situating migration in a more general understanding of society that engages with issues of distribution, representation and recognition. From this perspective, the focus of analysis moves away from an examination of the ‘benefits’ of migration to places of ‘origin’, and towards an investigation into the economic, political and social relationships and institutions that are conducive or detrimental to the mobility (or immobility) of an individual or group, and to their overall wellbeing within and across borders. Theoretically, this thesis emphasises the benefits of re-embedding migration studies in broader social theory to gain a substantive understanding of social change and of key deprivations and asymmetries that affect the mobility and wellbeing of Indigenous people and ‘irregular’ migrants. This draws primarily from the theoretical work of Polanyi (2001 [1944]) on social transformations and the work of Sen (1999) and Fraser (1998; 2005) on a broad capabilities-based approach. A mixed-methods, multi-scalar approach was used to gain insights into these complex issues, with research conducted in Mexico and the US in 2012-2013. This involved a combination of semi-structured interviews, focus groups, participant and site observation and participatory photography in the local areas of Piñas and Santa Maria; semi-structured interviews with key informants across Oaxaca and California; and analysis using academic and non-academic secondary research material. This thesis finds that the contemporary migration of Mixtecos is linked to historical and ongoing processes that have progressively transformed Indigenous communities in rural areas of Mexico and the US. Amid these changes, a conceptual focus on economic distribution, political representation and social recognition captures many of the actual challenges and opportunities faced by Indigenous people and ‘irregular’ migrants. This is significant for two interrelated reasons: first, because this focus on existing asymmetries and deprivations uncovers that those who migrate (and those who remain immobile) are essentially moving between societies that are stratified by factors such as ethnicity and migration status and this effectively enables or constrains the opportunities available to them; and second, because this focus on distribution, representation and recognition reveals the existence of commonalities between groups that have been confronted – to varying degrees and scales – by increasing commodification and inequality within and across borders. In the case of participants, this is evidenced by the devaluation of Indigenous land and labour in Oaxaca, in parallel with the incorporation of ‘irregular’ migrants as a source of cheap and flexible labour in the industrial agricultural fields of California and north-west Mexico. Similarly, as groups that have traditionally been left out under the liberal ideal of the nation-state, their lack of political inclusion at the national level filters down to produce qualitatively different experiences of time and space and an ongoing uncertainty about their mobility and employment. Likewise, and against an increasing emphasis on self-reliance and individual responsibility, Indigenous people and ‘irregular’ migrants are being targeted by punitive welfare policies that reinforce their vulnerability and exclusion from social life. Finally, this thesis finds that despite significant barriers, the agency of participants filters through multiple scales that are mediated by social relations such as gender and age. They face specific challenges that are negotiated through cultural patterns and historical experiences as exemplified by the ongoing salience of community systems of customary law or by the development of Indigenous-led organisations. Similarly, while the nation-state remains a key economic, political and social unit, specific developments at the ‘state’ and ‘local’ level provide participants with opportunities to manoeuvre beyond strict ‘national’ boundaries. Lastly, while this thesis is framed through the lenses of ethnicity and migration status, its findings demonstrate that women’s and children’s experiences of change, their incorporation into migration, and their agency in the Mexican and US contexts differ from that of adult males in significant ways that reveal important additional inequalities. Ultimately, the experiences of participants are not entirely unique. Mixtecos are neither the only Indigenous or ethnic minority in the world, nor are they the only group to engage in ‘irregular’ migration. This case study thus elucidates the necessity for conceptual frameworks that analyse migration as part of broader processes of social transformation while unequivocally engaging with existing economic, political and social inequalities in a specific time and context. As this thesis demonstrates, this is particularly poignant for those that have migrated, or have remained immobile, under increasingly precarious conditions.