An Inquiry into Non-Buddhist Religious Elements in Gandhāra from the 3rd BCE to the 3rd century CE

Abstract

Gandhāra, an ancient name for a region in the north-west of Pakistan, was home to many religions. This thesis aims to uncover the complex network of religious traditions embedded in Gandhāra’s ancient history between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. It focuses on non-Buddhist practices, particularly pan-Indian and pre-Buddhist traditions, the ancient forms of Hinduism, referred to as Brahmanism, and religious practices hailing from ancient Iranian traditions. This thesis will trace the evidence of non-Buddhist religions using archaeological and ancient literary sources. As each chapter examines the timeline of non-Buddhist traditions, this study has observed two significant factors influencing Gandhāra’s complex religious scene. The first notable pattern was how dominant religious groups such as Brahmanism and Buddhism integrated local religious elements into their literature and art. This pattern maintained the memory of non-Buddhist religions throughout Gandhāra’s history. By embracing foreign religious elements, particularly pan-Indian characters such as nāgas, yakṣas, and local goddesses, Brahmanism and Buddhism maintained these pan-Indian traditions in Gandhāra’s memory. The second significant factor was the repetitive incursions of foreign powers establishing their base in Gandhāra and its surroundings. These rulers, specifically the Indo-Greeks, the Scythians, the Parthians, and the Kushans, implemented two significant changes. They brought their own religious traditions to Gandhāra and embraced local Indic traditions. Thus, pooling Greek, Iranian, Indian and Central Asian religious practices into Gandhāra’s religious character. The dominancy of major religious groups and the cultural syncretism implemented and supported by foreign rulers were the principal factors that sustained non-Buddhist religions in Gandhāra from the 3rd BCE to the 3rd century CE.