https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19032 2026-06-11T12:27:39Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19211 Modeling the Potential for Aviation Liberalization in Central Asia - Market analysis and implications for the Belt and Road initiative Wang, Kun; Fu, Xiaowen; Czerny, Achim I.; Hua, Guowei; Lei, Zheng This study analyzes aviation markets in the five land-locked countries in Central Asia. Panel data spanning from 2007 to 2015 are used to estimate airline entry patterns in origin-destination markets. Econometric estimates for domestic and international markets are subsequently benchmarked, and route groups are paired by alternative matching algorithms so that counter-factual analysis can be conducted. Our investigation suggests that although the Central Asia–China markets are characterized by poor connectivity and high airfares, great benefits could be achieved if more liberal aviation policies such as those proposed by the Belt and Road initiative were introduced. In particular, our counterfactual analysis suggests that if the Central Asia–China markets were regulated and operated in a similar way to the routes between Central Asia and other states, the probability of having aviation services between cities in China and Central Asia would increase by 27%, even by conservative estimates. The number of Chinese destinations could increase by more than 150%. Our study finds strong negative effects of the restrictive regulations on the international aviation markets, and calls for further liberalizations between Central Asia and the region’s major trade partners. 2018-05-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19143 General solution scheme for the Static Link Transmission Model Raadsen, Mark P.H.; Bliemer, Michiel C.J. Until the present day most static traffic assignment models are neither capacity constrained nor storage constrained. Recent studies have resulted in novel approaches that consider capacity constraints and sometimes storage constraints. We build upon the results of these works and the model formulated in our companion paper Bliemer and Raadsen (2018a) which comprises a static assignment model formulation that is both capacity constrained as well as storage constrained. The formulation of this model is derived from a continuous time dynamic network loading model proposed in Bliemer and Raadsen (2018b). The prospect of being able to capture spillback effects in static assignment provides new opportunities for making this modelling method more capable. It is well known that the absence of spillback typically results in significant underestimation of path travel times. This is especially true for paths that do not traverse bottleneck(s) directly, but that are affected by the space occupied of queues that are spilling back. Similar to Smith (2013) and Smith et al. (2013), Bliemer and Raadsen (2018a) did not provide a solution algorithm. In this paper, we take their model formulation and propose a general solution scheme suitable for large scale networks. 2018-11-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19080 How to better represent preferences in choice models: the contributions to preference heterogeneity attributable to the presence of process heterogeneity Balbontin, Camila; Hensher, David A.; Collins, Andrew T. Discrete choice studies, with rare exception, assume that agents act as if sources of observed utility are captured through a linear in parameters and additive in attributes (LPAA) form, with some interactions. A growing number of transport (and other) choice studies have investigated one or more alternative processing rules adopted by agents in arriving at a choice, raising interest in how best to represent the utility expressions in a joint process and outcome choice model. Given the popular and appealing random parameter treatment of LPAA in mixed logit as a way of identifying non-systematic preference heterogeneity in a sample, this paper considers the possibility that we might be able to interact specific process heuristics with LPAA to uncover sources of systematic preference heterogeneity hidden in the standard LPAA form, and hence establish a link between the LPAA form and candidate process heuristics, offering a way to embellish and hence clarify the contributions to preference heterogeneity attributable to the presence of process heterogeneity. Specifically, we are interested in the extent to which there is a systematic relationship between the simple LPAA form and the more complex (albeit behaviourally realistic) process heuristics emerging in the transport literature which we call conditioning by random process heterogeneity (CRPH). In this paper, in addition to LPAA, we consider two process heuristics - Value Learning, and Relative Advantage Maximisation - with an overlay to account for risk attitudes, perceptual conditioning, and overt experience. The findings, using two data sets, suggest that empirically there exists a significant attribute-specific relationship between preference heterogeneity identified through specific process heuristics and through the LPAA assumption. 2018-09-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19079 Disaggregating the electricity sector in a CGE model to allow competition theory to explain the introduction of new technologies to the sector Truong, Truong P.; Hamasaki, Hiroshi The electricity sector in most CGE models is highly aggregate which makes it unsuitable for use in the analysis of the impacts of climate change or energy policies on the sector. A conventional approach is to disaggregate this sector into different technologies and then recombine the outputs (or costs) into that of a single sector using an aggregate production function (such as CRESH) or market share function (such as LOGIT). Such an approach is useful but not entirely transparent because it does not explain completely why the outputs of different technologies are only ‘imperfectly substitutable’ while electricity is a homogeneous commodity. In this paper we propose a different approach where the ‘imperfect substitutability’ of different electricity outputs is explained not in terms of the nature of output and distribution activities but in terms of the different types of capacities used in the generation of electricity. These capacities have different economic and technological characteristics which differentiate themselves from one another and these characteristics also make each type of capacity suitable for the supply of electricity to different types of demand (or electricity ‘loads’). The ‘imperfect substitutability’ between different electricity generation technologies, therefore, is derived from the imperfect substitutability between these different generation capacities rather than between their outputs. We illustrate the applicability of the new approach with some empirical examples taken from the case of the Japanese electricity sector. 2018-09-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19104 Determinants of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system revenue and effectiveness – A global benchmarking exercise Merkert, Rico; Mulley, Corinne; Hakim, Md Mahbubul Bus rapid transit systems (BRT) have evolved in all shapes and sizes around the world in the last 30 years motivated by providing greater efficiency and value for money than potential alternatives. This paper aims to explore and compare the effectiveness (including its determinants) and revenue potential of 58 BRT systems globally. A key research question for this paper is to what extent there is a trade-off between long term capital expenditure and short term operating cost. The results suggest that BRT systems located in developing countries or countries that have high population densities are successful in generating higher revenues per passenger and unit of input than their conventional bus counterparts but are from a community perspective not more cost effective in doing so. Better BRT standards and hence higher capital expenditure, while significantly increasing patronage and input effectiveness do not have a significant impact on either yields or cost effectiveness. In contrast, public ownership and the number of stations are on average associated with higher cost effectiveness scores. 2018-01-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19049 Willingness to participate in travel surveys: A cross-country and cross- methods comparison Verzosa, Nina; Greaves, Stephen; Ho, Chinh; Davis, Mark Travel surveys are the primary source of data that feed into the analysis and modeling of travel behaviour. Numerous studies have found that the survey method, be it pen and paper, online, interview, smartphone app, or GPS, impacts participation, diligence and accuracy of reporting. In turn, this can lead to bias both in terms of the socio-demographic mix of respondents, and under/mis-reporting of trip information. To date, there is limited understanding of if/how preferences for particular travel survey methods vary across countries. In 2014, a survey of 17,510 adults from 24 countries was undertaken by an internationally-renowned market research firm to assess preferences for different survey methods. The current paper focuses on responses from five of these countries with long-standing household travel surveys - Australia, USA, France, Germany, and Japan. Results suggest that for a given survey method, willingness to participate in travel surveys varies across countries and within each group of respondents (classified by their socio-demographic characteristics). Australians tend to have a higher willingness to participate across different survey methods compared to their counterparts, particularly from Japan. In terms of socio-demographic characteristics, younger respondents tend to engage in travel surveys regardless of the method, while females are more likely to prefer diary-based methods than mobile-based methods. Respondents also appear to trade-off effort in completing travel surveys using traditional methods against privacy issues surrounding mobile-based methods. Results suggest that that there is no ‘one size fits all’ methodology for travel surveys, with designers needing to carefully consider both socio-demographic and cultural differences. 2018-11-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19091 Do preferences for BRT and LRT change as a voter, citizen, tax payer, or self- interested resident? Balbontin, Camila; Hensher, David A.; Ho, Chinh; Mulley, Corinne Interest in modal preferences remains a topic of high interest as governments make infrastructure decisions that often favour one mode over the other. An informative input into the infrastructure selection process should be the preferences of residents, since they can guide buy in to support political and bureaucratic choice making. Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) uses the self-interest preferences of individuals as the relevant interpretation of ‘individual preferences count’, which in aggregate represent the benefit to society of candidate investments. However, the CBA benefit calculations can be rather restrictive with other preference metrics often being identified and used in various ways to inform the debate on infrastructure support. In this paper we assess how the preferences for bus rapid transit (BRT) and light rail transit (LRT) change with different roles the residents may play: a citizen or altruistic resident, a self-interested resident, a tax-payer, and as a voter. We use data collected in five countries to investigate preference differences and also to establish whether there is replicability of the findings across geographical jurisdictions. The findings suggest that there are, in general, noticeable differences in preference revelation across the metrics; however there are also both similarities and differences in the role of specific attribute drivers (as represented by willingness to pay, and magnitude of support for a specific mode) within and between preference metrics across countries. 2018-05-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19098 Commodity interaction in Freight movement models for Greater Sydney Hensher, David A.; Teye, Collins; Ellison, Richard B. Central to freight movement models is an understanding of where the freight commodities are produced and consumed. An important driver in the production and/or consumption of each commodity is the production and consumption of other commodities. In this paper, these important interactions between commodities are captured in a path based freight model which incorporates models of commodity production and consumption. We identify the key factors driving the consumption and production of each commodity together with their elasticities. To be suitable for forecasting and policy testing, the estimated models are transformed into linked logit models that allow for important policy measures such as accessibility and commodity generation powers to be estimated. The proposed model has been implemented to generate the amount of commodity of each type produced and consumed in each state of Australia with illustrations of how the production and/or consumption of one commodity triggers the production and/or consumption of others commodities. When built into an integrated transport and land use model system, this capability adds a richness to the way in which freight movements influence and hence impact on the performance of the entire transport network, for both passenger and freight. 2018-03-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19088 CORPORATE MOBILITY REVIEW; How Business can Shape Mobility Wong, Yale Z. This research is based around months of conversation with business leaders across major sectors of the Australian economy. It constitutes a business-led response to the challenge of mobility which is increasingly constraining the productivity and viability of Australian business. As part of the Sustainable Mobility Project, corporate involvement in mobility is investigated at all scales—from the smallest changes in company policy, to strategic new ventures in research and development. An extensive review of the literature is conducted to identify global trends and best practice in corporate mobility management. Transport challenges affecting a range of stakeholders like employees, customers, visitors and suppliers are discussed and various mobility initiatives evaluated. Mobility issues like flexible work, location policy and precinct-level travel management are also considered, before looking to new futures in urban passenger transportation and related opportunities for business participation. This literature review is coupled with an interview program conducted in Q4 2016 on ten organisations across unique industry sectors. Concurrent stakeholder engagement with Sustainable Business Australia member companies provided valuable ongoing feedback and ensured that emerging ideas could be adequately tested. The findings revealed a divergence across the business community’s involvement in mobility. Whilst some companies had a coherent strategy in place operationalised through worthwhile initiatives, others paid lip service to mobility issues and failed to translate the challenges they identified into action. There were some exceptional, forward-thinking leaders innovating to enter the future mobility marketplace with visions and targets set until the end of the century. Based on these findings, recommendations were then developed for businesses across sectors with the aim of generating dialogue and debate amongst the business community. These include: (1) collaborate across three dimensions—vertically within one’s own value chain with suppliers and customers, horizontally with competitors and other sectors, and orthogonally with government and industry associations; (2) challenge the status quo—whether it be on work practices, company culture or mobility solutions to lead new thinking across the organisation; (3) devise a mobility management plan—regularly survey stakeholders across the business (employees, customers, visitors and suppliers) on a range of indicators to understand their mobility requirements, and use this data to inform mobility initiative development; and (4) innovate to compete in the new mobility paradigm, adapting the company business model and seizing new opportunities as markets evolve. The key lesson here is that there are ample opportunities for business to shape mobility and that it is never too early (nor disadvantageous) to start the conversation. 2018-07-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19100 Emerging transport technologies and the modal efficiency framework: A case for mobility as a service (MaaS) Wong, Yale Z.; Hensher, David A.; Mulley, Corinne The land passenger transport sector lies on the cusp of a major transformation, guided by collaborative consumption, next generation vehicles, demographic change and digital technologies. Whilst there is widespread enthusiasm across the community for this nexus of disruptors, the wholescale implications on road capacity, traffic congestion, land use and the urban form remains unclear, and by extension, whether this emerging transport paradigm will bring a net benefit to the transport system and our communities. Some issues include the proliferation of point-to-point transportation, a continuation of universal vehicle ownership, and the demise of fixed route public transport—all envisaged by various industry leaders in technology and transportation. In this paper, we develop the modal efficiency framework, with axes representing spatial and temporal efficiency to illustrate why some of these developments may be geometrically incompatible with dense urban environments. We then investigate three potential scenarios likely to emerge and explain why they may be problematic with reference to this framework. Mobility as a service (MaaS) based on shared mobility and modal integration is then introduced as a sustainable alternative which accounts for the realities of spatial and temporal efficiency. Various models for implementing MaaS are evaluated including the distinction between commercially-motivated models (presently well advanced in research and development), and systems which incorporate an institutional overlay. The latter, government-led MaaS, is recommended for implementation given the opportunity for incorporating road pricing as an input into package price, defined by time of day, geography and modal efficiency. In amidst the hype of this emerging transport paradigm, a critical assessment of the realm of possibilities can better inform government policy and ensure that digital disruption occurs to our advantage. 2018-02-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19102 On the stability of preferences and attitudes: a hybrid model of air travel preferences at two different points in time Beck, Matthew J.; Hess, Stephane Many methods have been developed to give transport policy makers better insight into why different choices are made. One such methodology that has been receiving increasing attention is the hybrid choice model, which seeks to allow for a better understanding of the relationship between choices and attitudes or character traits latent to the respondent. Recently there has been debate as to the appropriateness of using such models to conclude that a change in a given attitude will bring a change in choice given the focus on cross-sectional data. To address this, we propose a framework to examine the stability of choices and attitudes over time. Making use of a repeated stated preference experiment conducted at two points in time on an identical set of respondents we find that, in the context of air security procedures, preferences and latent attitudes are relatively stable over time despite the two different and extreme shocks at the times the survey was conducted. While this is comforting to transport policy makers in some respects, these results lead one to ask that if choices and preferences do not change in extreme situations how changeable are they truly in the context of a nudge agenda by many governments? Additionally, we find some evidence that for the most part while latent attitudes are invariant, the role they play in choices differs over waves suggesting potential cognitive dissonance. 2018-02-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19128 Generalized multivariate extreme value models for explicit route choice sets Smits, Erik-Sander; Pel, Adam J.; Bliemer, Michiel C.J.; Arema, Bart van This paper analyses a class of route choice models with closedform probability expressions, namely, Generalized Multivariate Extreme Value (GMEV) models. A large group of these models emerge from different utility formulas that combine systematic utility and random error terms. Twelve models are captured in a single discrete choice framework. The additive utility formula leads to the known logit family, being multinomial, path-size, paired combinatorial and link-nested. For the multiplicative formulation only the multinomial and path-size weibit models have been identified; this study also identifies the paired combinatorial and link-nested variations, and generalizes the path-size variant. Furthermore, a new traveller's decision rule based on the multiplicative utility formula with a reference route is presented. Here the traveller chooses exclusively based on the differences between routes. This leads to four new GMEV models. We assess the models qualitatively based on a generic structure of route utility with random foreseen travel times, for which we empirically identify that the variance of utility should be different from thus far assumed for multinomial probit and logit-kernel models. The expected travellers' behaviour and model-behaviour under simple network changes are analysed. Furthermore, all models are estimated and validated on an illustrative network example with long distance and short distance origin-destination pairs. The new multiplicative models based on differences outperform the additive models in both tests. 2018-08-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19130 Environmental Costs and Economics Implications of Container Shipping in the Northern Sea Route Zhua, Shengda; Fu, Xiaowen; Adolf, Ng; Luo, Meifeng The Northern Sea Route (NSR) has tremendous potential for marine shipping between Europe and Asia in terms of savings in transport time and distance. However, the Arctic area is environmentally vulnerable thus there is a trade-off between NSR’s impacts on environment vs. its economic benefits, especially when compared with the traditional route through the Suez Canal route (SCR). This study estimates the market shares of different transport modes and alternative shipping routes for the container transport market between Europe and Asia, and the resultant environmental costs. Our analysis suggests that NSR can be a viable option under the status quo. However, its environmental costs tend to be higher than SCR due to small ship size and low load factor in the present, thus that the successful development of NSR can lead to worse environment outcomes. If these issues can be addressed, NSR can benefit from lower operational and environmental costs, which will lead to higher market share and social welfare. 2018-04-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19129 The impacts of airport activities on regional economy - An empirical analysis of New Zealand Fu, Xiaowen; Tsui, Kan; Sampaio, Breno; Tan, David Tat Wei This study investigates the impacts of airport activities on regional economies using annual data on 22 regions and airports in New Zealand from 1996 to 2016. Studying all regions of an island country avoids the sample selection bias, and reduces the likelihood of incorrectly capturing the effects of improvements in other transport modes. The use of panel data over an extensive period of time also contributes to a robust identification procedure. In addition to the fixed effects estimation that has been frequently used in the literature, the system generalized methods of moments (GMM) approach and the dynamic common correlated effects (CCE) estimator are applied to account for cross-sectional dependence, cross-regional heterogeneity, and feedback effects. We find that airport activities have a statistically and economically significant impact on a region’s economy. This finding is robust across fixed effects, GMM, and CCE estimations, although more significant effects are identified by the less restrictive CCE approach. Our study suggests a positive effect of aviation on regional economies, and supports local/regional policies promoting aviation activities. 2018-04-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19093 Gamification in transport interventions: Another way to improve travel behavioural change Yen, Barbara T.H.; Mulley, Corinne; Burke, Matthew Gamification is dramatically transforming how behaviour change interventions are delivered. The design of gaming products in the field of transport, a field which is perceived as having derived demand, is largely underdeveloped. This paper explores gamification in the context of transport, proposes a conceptual theoretical framework that explains why and how gamification may be designed and evaluated, and synthesises current practice regarding the range of interventions offered thus far. The conclusions identify strategies and implications for the improvement to existing schemes as well as guidance for future research into gamification. 2018-03-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19052 Creation of unstructured big data from customer service: The case of parcel shipping companies on Twitter Bhattacharjya, Jyotirmoyee; Ellison, Adrian Bachman; Pang, Vincent; Gezdur, Arda Purpose - Customer service provision is a growing phenomenon on social media and parcel shipping companies have been among the most prominent adopters. This has coincided with greater interest in the development of analysis techniques for unstructured big data from social media platforms, such as the micro-blogging platform, Twitter. Given the growing use of dedicated customer service accounts on Twitter, this paper investigates the effectiveness with which parcel shipping companies use the platform. Design/methodology/approach – This paper demonstrates the use of a combination of tools for retrieving, processing and analysing large volumes of customer service related conversations generated between parcel shipping companies and their customers in Australia, United Kingdom and the United States. Extant studies using data from Twitter tend to focus on the contributions of individual entities and are unable to capture the insights provided by a holistic examination of the interactions. Findings – This study identifies the key issues that trigger customer contact with parcel shipping companies on Twitter. It identifies similarities and differences in the approaches that these companies bring to customer engagement and identifies opportunities for using the medium more effectively. Originality/value – The development of consumer-centric supply chains and relevant theories require researchers and practitioners to have the ability to include insights from growing quantities of unstructured data gathered from consumer engagement. This study makes a methodological contribution by demonstrating the use of a set of tools to gather insight from a large volume of conversations on a social media platform. 2018-10-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19087 Steady-state link travel time methods: formulation, derivation, and classification Raadsen, Mark P.H.; Bliemer, Michiel C. J. Travel times are one of the most important outputs of transport planning models and this is unlikely to change in the future. It is therefore paramount that the methods that underpin the construction of travel times are well understood. However, while there exist many different travel time formulations to date, their relation to each other is not well researched, especially in the context of the three main types of macroscopic modelling paradigms: dynamic, semi-dynamic, and static traffic assignment. In this work, we provide consistent and general link travel time formulations across these three modelling paradigms, assuming steady state flow rates and by directly deriving them from a recent state-of-the-art continuous time macroscopic dynamic network loading model. We do so from two different perspectives; an experienced perspective, which actively tracks the tail of a physical queue, and a functional perspective, which does not. Based on the existing literature and our generalised link travel time formulations, a classification framework is proposed allowing one to compare existing (and future) methods in the literature in an objective fashion. We provide a number of explicit derivations of existing model formulations that can be considered special cases of our unified approach. In addition a number of representative existing methods in the literature has been classified based on the above mentioned framework for the reader’s convenience. 2018-08-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19089 Consumer Surplus based Method for Quantifying and Improving the Material Flow Supply Chain Network Robustness Perera, Supun; Bell, Michael G.H.; Kurauchi, Fumitaka; Bliemer, Michiel C. J.; Kasthurirathna, Dharshana Recent advances in network science has encouraged researchers to adopt a topological view when characterising the robustness of supply chain networks (SCNs). However, topology based characterisations, without considering the heterogeneity among the supply chains which form the SCN, can only provide a partial understanding of robustness. Hitherto, focus of robustness studies have been on cyclic SCNs, with unweighted and undirected links representing general inter-firm interactions. Here, we consider the specific case of a material flow SCN with multi-sourcing, which is characterised by a tiered structure with directed and weighted links. The proposed method uses the multinomial logit model to estimate the utility levels of supply chains within the SCN, as perceived by a focal firm which is indicative of the SCN consumers. The robustness of the SCN is characterised by considering the degree to which supply chains overlap with each other as a cost in the logit formulation. Finally, using a randomisation scheme to generate ensembles of SCN configurations which preserve the number of connections at each firm, the configuration which maximises the consumer surplus for the focal firm is identified. The proposed method is implemented on a real world SCN to identify the optimal configuration in terms of robustness. 2018-06-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19096 Tackling road congestion – what might it look like in the future under a collaborative and connected mobility model? Hensher, David A. Traffic congestion continues to be the bane of many metropolitan areas and has exercised the minds of experts for at least the last 60 years. With the advent of smart (intelligent) mobility, aligned with digital disruption and future connected and collaborative transport including extensions to autonomous vehicles, the question of whether we have a new window of opportunity to tame congestion is now high on the list of possibilities. It is however very unclear what the future will look like in respect of congestion on the roads, especially if we rely on ‘smart’ technology and continue to reject reform of road user charging and new opportunities to fund the sharing model. This paper looks at a number of themes as a way of highlighting possibilities and challenges. 2018-01-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19090 Firm-specific and location-specific drivers of business location and relocation decisions Balbontin, Camila; Hensher, David A. Decisions made by businesses on where to locate or relocate are typically given less consideration than residential location in integrated transport and land use modelling systems. This is surprising given the important role that businesses play in defining employment opportunities, and hence the travel patterns of workers and any travel associated with accessing firms. As part of a larger study on giving firm location choices an endogenous representation in an integrated model system, this paper reviews the existing literature on the drivers of location and relocation decisions in various geographical jurisdictions. The findings provide a starting position in the design of future firm-specific surveys and especially the attributes that are candidates for stated choice experiments and for inclusion in firm location utility equations embedded in integrated strategic model systems. 2018-06-01T00:00:00Z https://hdl.handle.net/2123/19069 Autonomous Vehicles Down Under: An Empirical Investigation of Consumer Sentiment Greaves, Stephen; Smith, Brett; Arnold, Tony; Olaru, Doina; Collins, Andrew T. Of the many issues surrounding the potential introduction of Autonomous Vehicles (AVs), consumer response remains unclear. The current paper presents an empirical investigation of consumer sentiment towards AVs based on an online survey of 455 Australian adults. Market segmentation procedures are used to cluster participants according to their attitudes and concerns towards AVs with clusters then profiled according to demographics, personality traits and contextual/situational factors. Results suggest unsurprisingly that attitudes and concerns are a useful predictor of the likelihood of purchasing an AV. More favourable attitudes towards AVs are associated with younger, male respondents, those who drive less currently and those more open to sharing their car. More negative attitudes prevail with older, female respondents, those who drive more, and those less open to sharing their car. Results have important implications for policy-makers and researchers alike. 2018-10-01T00:00:00Z